阅读理解首先是对文章主旨和大意的理解，它是全文的概括与总结，能否抓住这个中心，体现了读者总结、概括和归纳事物的能力。每篇短文都有主题思想，而作者表现主题思想的手法各不相同。那么命题人是怎样根据大纲对主旨大意的要求来设计命题方式?考生又该怎样掌握短文的主旨大意?本章将就这两个问题分别加以说明。 第一节 命 题 方 式 医学教育网根据大纲对掌握文章主旨大意的要求，命题人员的出题方式主要有主题型、标题型和目的型 医学教 育网收集整理 。具体提问方式通常为： 1. What is the main idea the subject of the passage? 2.The key point ／ The main idea of the passage ／ The best summary is .3.The passage mainly deals with (is mainly about) . 4.Which of the following best reflects the main idea of the article? 医学教育网5.The main point the author makes in the passage is . 6.The best suitable title for the passage would might be . 7.With what topic is the passage primarily concerned? 8.The author`s purpose of writing this passage is . 医学 教育网搜集整理 需要特别指出的是，标题型虽然与主题句密切相关，但它们又有区别，找到了主题句不一定能找对标题。因为标题常常隐含于主题句之中，主题句只能使考生在定标题的时候有所启发，考生只能根据主题句进行再抽象，然后找到标题。主题句在词法和句法上是一整句，而标题在结构上往往是单词或短语。主题句对整篇起到统帅作用，而标题是整篇表现的对象。主题句语义明确，而标题则内含较深。 例如(1996年考题第4篇66题) What accounts for the great outburst of major inventions in early America—breakthroughs such as the telegraph, the steamboat and the weaving machine? Among the many shaping factors, I would single out the country`s excellent elementary schools; a labor force that welcomed the new technology; the practice of giving premiums to inventors; and above all the American genius for nonverbal,“ spatial” thinking about things technological. Why mention the elementary schools? Because thanks to these schools our early mechanics, especially in the New England and Middle Atlantic states, were generally iterate and at home in arithmetic and in some aspects of geometry and trigonometry. Acute foreign observers related American adaptiveness and inventiveness to this educational advantage. As a member of a British commission visiting here in 1953 reported, “With a mind prepared by thorough school discipline, the American boy develops rapidly into the skilled workman.” A further stimulus to invention came from the“ premium” system, which preceded our patent system and for years ran parallel with it. This approach, originated abroad, offered inventors medals, cash prizes and other incentives. In the United States, multitudes of premiums for new devices were awarded at country fairs and at the industrial fairs in major cities. Americans flocked to these fairs to admire the new machines and thus to renew their faith in the beneficence of technological advance. Given this optimistic approach to technological innovation, the American worker took readily to that special kind of nonverbal thinking required in mechanical technology. As Eugene Ferguson has pointed out, A technologist thinks about objects that cannot be reduced to unambiguous verbal descriptions; they are dealt with in his mind by a visual, nonverbal process … The designer and the inventor…are able to assemble and manipulate in their minds devices that as yet do not exist.? This nonverbal “ spatial ”thinking can be just as creative as painting and writing. Robert Fulton once wrote, “ The mechanic should sit down among levers, screws, wedges, wheels, etc. , like a poet among the letters of the alphabet, considering them as an exhibition of his thoughts, in which a new arrangement transmits a new idea. ” When all these shaping forces—schools, open attitudes, the premium system, a genius for spatial thinking—interacted with one another on the rich US mainland, they produced that American characteristic, emulation. Today that word implies mere imitation. But in earlier times it meant a friendly but competitive striving for fame and excellence. The best title for this passage might be . ［A］ Inventive Mind ［B］ Effective Schooling ［C］ Ways of Thinking ［D］ Outpouring of Inventions 本篇的主题句是开篇的第一句“What accounts for the great outburst of major inventions in early America-?”在第二段就回答了这个问题，指出有四个方面：“excellent elementary schools; a labour force that welcomed the new technology; the practice of giving premiums to inventors; and above all the American genius for nonverbal,“spatial”thinking about things technological”，后边几段都是围绕这一主题展开。找到了主题句不一定能找到标题，本句的主语是“what accounts for …”，整篇文章对主语“What …”进行了详细的阐述，在所例举的四种解释中，尤其强调了最后一种，因此答案选A项，即：“ Inventive mind accounts for the great outburst of major inventions …”。 第二节 掌握短文主题句 为使读者能直接地了解语篇的主旨大意，作者通常采取主题句的写作手法，即用一句或几句话来直接表达主题。这一主题句在意义上具有概括性，在句法上简洁明了，全篇文章的各个部分都要紧密围绕主题展开。在内容安排上层层铺述，逐渐深入，直到把某一观点或事物论述得透彻明晰。鉴于文体不同，短文主题句在文中的位置也不同。通常情况下可为分： 1.首段主题句短文的主题思想在首段有所概括，文章一开始就明确主题，全文的每个段落都紧紧围绕这个主题展开讨论或说明 。例如(1994年考题第1篇54题) The American economic system is organized around a basically private-enterprise, market-oriented economy in which consumers largely determine what shall be produced by spending their money in the market-place for those goods and services that they want most. private businessmen, striving to make profits, produce these goods and services in competition with other businessmen; and the profit motive, operating undercompetitive pressures, largely determines how these goods and services are produced. Thus, in the American economic system it is the demand of individual consumer, coupled with the desire of businessmen to maximize profits and the desire of individuals to maximize their incomes, that together determine what shall be produced and how resources are used to produce it. An important factor in a market-oriented economy is the mechanism by which consumer demands can be expressed and responded to by producers. In the American economy, this mechanism is provided by a price system, a process in which prices rise and fall in response to relative demands of consumers and supplies offered by seller-producers. If the product is in short supply relative to the demand, the price will be bid up and some consumers will be eliminated from the market. If, on the other hand, producing more of a commodity results in reducing its cost, this will tend to increase the supply offered by seller-producers, which in turn will lower the price and permit more consumers to buy the product. Thus, price is the regulating mechanism in the American economic system. The important factor in a private-enterprise economy is that individuals are allowed to own productive resources (private property), and they are permitted to hire labor, gain control over natural resources, and produce goods and services for sale at a profit. In the American economy, the concept of private property em-braces not only the ownership of productive resources but also certain rights, including the right to determine the price of a product or to make a free contract with another private individual. The passage is mainly about .［A］ how American goods are produced ［B］ how American consumers buy their goods ［C］ how American economic system works ［D］ how American businessmen make their profits 文章的首段首句点明主题：美国经济体制的构成基础是私营企业与市场经济，在市场中消费者花钱购买自己最需要的商品或服务，他们的需要在很大程度上决定了产品的生产。文章第二、三段都是围绕“美国经济的这一特征及其如何运行”展开的。其中第二段的首句“An important factor in a market-oriented economy is the mechanism by which consumer demands can be expressed and responded to by producers.”既是该段落的核心，又是围绕首段主题展开的议论，指出“以市场为经济的重要因素是消费者能够表达其需求；生产者能够对这些需求做出反应”。同样，第三段围绕本文的主题，阐述私营企业经济的一个重要因素——允许私人拥有生产资料，雇佣劳动力等。纵观全文，我们不难看出选择项C：“美国经济体制是如何运行的”概括全文主题，尽管选项A、B和D所陈述的内容都是短文所谈到的，但却未具体讨论与分析。 2.中段主题句 有的短文首段只是个引子，中段才是主题；尾段也可能有概括性很强的句子，也就是说短文有两个主题句。尾段主题句在词法和句法上与前面的主题句不一定相同，内容上也不是简单的重复，大多数情况下后者可以对前者有所引申或顺应前者的叙述顺理成章有所侧重。 例如(1994年考题第2篇58题) One hundred and thirteen million Americans have at least one bank-issued credit card. They give their owners automatic credit in stores, restaurants, and hotels, at home, across the country, and even abroad, and they make many banking services available as well. More and more of these credit cards can be read automatically, making it possible to withdraw or deposit money in scattered locations, whether or not the local branch bank is open. For many of us the “cashless society” is not on the horizon-it`s already here. While computers offer these conveniences to consumers, they have many advantages for sellers too. Electronic cash registers can do much more than simply ring up sales. They can keep a wide range of records, including who sold what, when, and to whom. This information allows businessmen to keep track of their list of goods to suppliers can then be made. At the same time these computers record which hours are busiest and which employees are the most efficient, allowing personnel and staffing assignments to be made accordingly. And they also identify preferred customers for promotional campaigns. computers are relied on by manufacturers for similar reasons. Computer-analyzed marketing reports can help to decide which products to emphasize now, which to develop for the future, and which to drop. Computers keep track of goods in stock, of raw materials on hand, and even of the production process itself. Numerous other commercial enterprises, from theaters to magazine publishers, from gas and electric utilities to milk processors, bring better and more efficient services to consumers through the use of computers. What is this passage mainly about? ［A］Approaches to the commercial use of computers. ［B］Conveniences brought about by computers in business. ［C］Significance of automation in commercial enterprises. ［D］Advantages of credit cards in business. 全文讨论计算机的应用给消费者带来诸多方便，主题句是短文中段的首句“While computers offer these conveniences to consumers, they have many advantages for sellers too.”(计算机在给消费者提供这些方便的同时，也给销售者带来许多方便)。接下来的内容均围绕这一主题，如：电子现金出纳机能做……，利用计算机分析市场报告等。尾段又强化了主题，总结说“Numerous other commercial enterprises, ……，bring better and more efficient services to consumers through the use of computers.”，指出计算机使用在其他方面所带来的益处。可见，在所给的四个选择中，B项概括全文主题。本文不在于说明计算机如何在商业上使用；也不在于说明“商业自动化的意义”，故排除A、C项。尽管首段例举了信用卡的使用给消费者带来好处，但作者只是通过这个例子来说明计算机的应用给消费者带来许多方便这一主题，因此，也排除D项。 第三节 掌握段落主题句 一篇短文是根据主题思想的各个方面、各个层次进行说明、阐述和论证的。它的主体部分一般分成若干个段落，每一个段落应侧重于一个方面，而且就这一方面的内容进行展开。因此，抓住每一段的中心内容(段落主题句)对于掌握短文的主旨大意大有帮助。由于文体不同，段落主题句在文中的位置也不尽相同。主要分为： 1.段首主题句 主题句位于段落的开端，一开始就明确主题，然后展开讨论或说明，即采用演绎法，由一般到个别，由概述到详解。这种主题句给读者一种清新明了的感觉，使人一看就明白段落所要阐述的内容，一语道破，具有极强的感染力。段落中其他句子均受主题句的约束。判断段首主题句的方法是：分析段落的首句与第二、三句的关系，如果从第二句开始就对第一句进行说明、论述或描述，那么第一句就是主题句。 例如(1991年考题第三篇43题) The actual amount of water in the plant at one time, however, is only a very small part of what passes through it during its development. The processes of photosynthesis, by which carbon dioxide and water are combined-in the presence of chlorophyll(叶绿素)and with energy derived from light-to form sugars, require that carbon dioxide from the air enter the plant. This occurs mainly in the leaves. The leaf surface is not solid but contains great numbers of minute openings, through which the carbon dioxide enters. The same structure that permits the one gas to enter the leaf, however, permits another gas-water vapor-to be lost from it. Since carbon dioxide is present in the air only in trace quantities(3 to 4 parts in 10000 parts of air) and water vapor is near saturation in the air spaces within the leaf (at 80°F, saturated air would contain about 186 parts of water vapor in 10000 parts of air), the total amount of water vapor lost is many times the carbon dioxide intake. Actually, because of wind and other factors, the loss of water in proportion to carbon dioxide intake may be even greater than the relative concentrations of the two gases. Also, not all of the carbon dioxide that enters the leafs synthesized into carbonhydrate(碳水化合物). Question: This paragraph uses facts to develop the essential idea that . ［A］ a plant efficiently utilizes most of the water it absorbs ［B］ carbon dioxide is the essential substance needed for plant development ［C］ a plant needs more water than is found in its composition ［D］ the stronger the wind, the more the water vapor loss 本题提问的是：本段用事实来展现的基本思想是哪一个?略读全文我们发现本段一开始就摆出了主题“The actual amount of water in the plant at one time, however, is only a very small part of what passes through it during its development”，接下来的句子都是为了进行论证或发展这一主题句。选择项A的内容是植物有效地利用它所吸取水分中的大部分，这与主题句所陈述的内容不符。主题句指出：“然而，植物中水的含量实际上只是生长过程中所吸收水分中的一小部分”，这说明植物并没有很好地利用它吸取的水分中的大部分，而只利用了小部分。因此，选择项A与主题相矛盾；选择项B的内容是二氧化碳是植物生长过程中所需的最重要的物质，作者在本段里提到过“…二氧化碳和水通过光合作用过程合成糖类，这种光合作用过程需要来自空气中的二氧化碳进入植物”，但我们并不能以此说二氧化碳是植物往年生长所需的最重要的物质，文章里也提到了水的作用，并没有围绕这两个主题阐述，故也排除B项；选择项C是植物需要的水分比其组织中的更多一些。我们在上述分析中已经知道植物的生长离不开水，有大部分的水蒸气从植物中散发出来，而植物的生长又离不开这些从植物中散发出来的很大一部分水蒸气。所以，正确答案为C项。选择项D的内容是风越大，水蒸气散发的就越多。从文中的几个发展句中我们可以看出，空气中水蒸气的含量比二氧化碳的高，水蒸气散发损失的总量是二氧化碳吸收量的很多倍，水蒸气损失量的大小受风和其他因素的影响，但我们并不能因此得出结论说“风越大，水蒸气的消耗也就越大”。所以说选项D也是不正确的。2.段尾主题句 主题句位于段落末尾，以加强段落的说服力，作者采用的是归纳法，先叙述、后概括，以强调根据阐述句提供的具体事实做出的结论。是对整段文章的概括和总结，前面的句子都是最后一句结论的铺垫。 例如Imagine a world in which children would be the rulers and could decide not only the outcome of each and every occurrence, but also dictate the very structure and form of the environment. In this world, a child`s wildest thoughts would become reality limited only by the extent of his or her imagination. Which such a world might sound both fantastic and frightening, at least from a logical, adult perspective, it does exist. What`s more, it has been in existence for some time and is populated by hundreds of thousands of children who spend hours within its boundaries experimenting and learning. This world is not real, at least not in the traditional sense, but exists within a computer and is generated by an educational programming language called LOGO. Unlike other computer languages and programs that are designed to test children and provide applications that formally dispense information, LOGO allows children, even preschool children to be in total control. Children teach the computer to think and as a result develop and sharpen their own reasoning ability. The best title for this passage would be ［A］ “Children Rule the World”［B］ “Children Learn Reasoning Using LOGO” ［C］ “Computer Languages” ［D］ “The Unreal World of the Child and the Computer” 本文首先“请人们设想一个完全由儿童统治的世界”，在这个世界里，“a child`s wildest thoughts would become reality limited only by the extent of his or her imagination”。接着作者又交待原来这种世界只“exist within a computer”，是“由名为LOGO的教育程序语言产生的。”在介绍完LOGO语言之后，作者道出主题，对整篇文章进行了概括和总结，根据阐述句的具体事物做出结论：“Children teach the computer to think and as a result develop and sharpen their own reasoning ability.”理顺文章的脉络就不难找出正确答案。 文章的目的不在于说明“儿童统治整个世界”，而是用它打下伏笔，进而介绍LOGO程序能够帮助儿童发展并提高自己的推理能力。因此，选项A是错误的；选项C的内容是关于“计算机语言”，做这篇文章的题目太笼统，也不恰当，文中只提到LOGO这么一种教育程序语言，说到它“不同于那些用来测试儿童以及提供正式处理信息的应用的其他计算机语言的程序”，可是并没有进一步阐述其他计算机语言；选项D对本文是一种误解，它完全脱离LOGO这种语言程序确实存在的现实，现实中确实不存在一个完全由儿童统治的世界，但不能下结论说儿童与计算机是不真实的世界。只有选项B从儿童掌握使用LOGO语言可以发展自己的推理能力的角度来确立主题，恰好与文章的结论“…develop and sharpen their own reasoning ability”相吻合。因此，正确答案应属B项。 3.段中主题句 有的段落开段一、两句或几句都是铺叙，作者的目的是用这个引子引出主题。主题句之后仍有一定数量的句子陈述、论述或引申这一主题句。段中主题句的段落结构是：或者先提出问题，然后给予回答，再给予解释，即“提问—回答—再解释”；或者先用一、两个引子，然后点明主题，再给予解释，即“引题—主题句—解释”。 例如 Teaching is supposed to be a professional activity requiring long and complicated training, as well as official certification. The act of teaching is looked upon as a flow of knowledge from a higher source to an empty container. The student`s role is one of receiving information; the teacher`s role is one of sending it. There is a clear distinction assumed between one who is supposed to know (and therefore, not capable of being wrong) and another, usually younger person, who is supposed not to know. However, teaching need not be the province of a special group of people, nor need it be looked upon as a technical skill. Teaching can be more like guiding and assisting, than forcing information into a supposedly empty head. If you have a certain skill you should be able to share it with someone. You do not nave to get certified to convey what you know to someone else or to help them in their attempt to teach themselves. All of us, from the very youngest children to the oldest members of our cultures, should come to realize our own potential as teachers. We can share what we know, however little it might be, with someone who has need of that knowledge or skill. What is the main point the author makes in the paragraph? ［A］ It is not difficult to be a good teacher. ［B］ Every person has the potential to be a teacher. ［C］ Teaching is a professional activity requiring special training. ［D］ Teaching is the flow of knowledge from a higher source to an empty container. 作者一开始在论述“teaching”时，并没有直接了当地说明自己的观点，而是用“is supposed to be…”,又进一步论述“There is a clear distinction assumed between the one who is supposed to know and another…who is supposed not to know”.从以上这几个句子中所使用的“suppose”、“assume”等词汇中，我们也该清醒地认识到这并不是作者的想法。果然，文章直转急下，用一个转折词“however”来表明作者的看法，“teaching need not be the province of a special group of people, nor need it be looked upon as a technical skill”，教学不应是强制性的灌输，而应该是一种引导、帮助的过程。“All of us,……， should come to realize our own potential as teachers”这一主题思想是在总结、陈述其原因之后才摆出来的，在分析完文章主题之后就不难做出选择了。A项说做一名好教师不难，实际上是扭曲了文章的宗旨。文章论述的是教学的本质应该怎样，并不是单纯指教学过程的简单性；C项恰好表述了与文章主题相反的思想，也正是我们常人所认为的那样，而在作者看来，这种观点站不住脚，这点从“teaching need not be…，nor need it be looked upon as a technical skill”中就能看清；D项与C项相同，也与作者的看法相反，“Teaching can be more like guiding and assisting, than forcing information into a supposedly empty head”，至于“The act of teaching is looked upon as a flow of knowledge from a higher source to an empty container”只是一种“supposition”或“assumption”，是作者为引出主题而用的引子。只有B项能够表达作者在这篇文章中所持的观点和态度。因此，正确答案只能是B项。 第四节 把握语篇段落的展开 掌握所读材料的主旨和大意就是要求考生从短文整体上把握短文的中心思想。这个中心思想就是整篇语句表现的一个共同信息值。这一信息值的得出需要考生把每一自然段的信息联接、组织起来，形成短文的主题思想。主题思想的信息值一定等于问题加正确选项的信息值。 有的文章主题思想并不是直接由一、两个句子表述，而是通过阐述句暗示出来，这就是常说的无明确主题句，需要考生根据文中细节进行概括与归纳，即：将不同细节所集中论述的要点概括出来或者将整篇文章的所有内容综合起来，然后再下结论。在求解主题思想信息值时一定要把握短文的篇章结构，通过对篇章结构的理解，即：从因果关系、例证关系、对比关系、逻辑分析等具体内容、细节和作者的选词当中，把握主题思想。 例如Having no language, infants cannot be told what they need to learn. Yet by the age of three they will have mastered the basic structure of their native language and will be well on their way to communicative competence. Acquiring their language is a most impressive intellectual feat. Students of how children learn language generally agree that the most remarkable aspect of this feat is the rapid acquisition of grammar. Nevertheless, the ability of children to conform to grammatical rules is only slightly more wonderful than their ability to learn words. It has been reckoned that the average high school graduate in the United States has a reading vocabulary of 80000 words, which includes idiomatic expressions and proper names of people and places. This vocabulary must have been learned over a period of 16 years. From the figures, it can be calculated that the average child learns at a rate of about 13 new words per day. Clearly a learning process of great complexity goes on at a rapid rate in children. What is the main subject of the passage? ［A］ Language acquisition in Children［B］ Teaching languages to children ［C］ How to Memorize words［D］ Communicating with words 本段文章中未出现明确的主题句，但是，通篇都在谈论儿童学习语言的特点、方法及过程，研究儿童学习语言的语言学家公认，儿童到3岁时就会掌握母语的基本结构，接近交际能力。“Clearly a learning process of great complexity goes on at a rapid rate in children”。因此，我们可以得出结论说：儿童的语言学习是本篇文章的主题，答案为A项。文中没提教儿童学语言，只说过“没有语言，就不能告诉幼儿需要学什么”，所以，B项不予考虑；C项内容是如何记单词，文中并没告诉我们记单词的方法，只是提出“普通美国中学毕业生的阅读词汇是8万单词…这些词汇一定是经过16年的时间才学到等等；D项涉及用语言进行交流，而文章通篇没有“communicate”的字样，故后几项全部排除。 第五节 专项阅读练习 Passage 1 Before the 1870`s, trained nurses were virtually unknown in the United States. Hospital nursing was an unskilled occupation, taken up by women of the lower classes, some of whom were conscripted from the penitentiary or the almshouse. The movement for reform originated not with doctors, but among upper-class women, who had taken on the role of guardians of a new hygienic order. Though some doctors approved of the women`s desire to establish a nurses training school, which would attract the daughters of the middle class, other medical men were opposed. Plainly threatened by the prospect, the objected that educated nurses would not do as they were told-a remarkable comment on the status anxieties of nineteenth-century physicians. But the women reformers did not depend on the physicians` approval: When resisted, as they were at Bellevue in efforts to install trained nurses on the maternity wards, they went over the heads of the doctors to men of their own class of greater power and authority. (Florence Nightingale, who had friends high in the English government, had followed exactly the same course in reforming her country`s military hospitals.) professional nursing, in short, emerged neither from medical discoveries nor from a program of hospital reform initiated by physicians; outsiders saw the need first. Which of the following is the best title for the passage? ［A］ public Hygiene in the United States ［B］ Florence Nightingale: A Nurse`s story ［C］ The Fight for Nursing Education in the United States ［D］ Health Care in Upper-and lower-class Neighborhoods Passage 2 The economy of the United States after 1952 was the economy of a well-fed, almost fully employed people. Despite occasional alarms, the country escaped any postwar liquidation and lived in a state of boom. The history of extraction, production, and distribution had therefore been almost nothing but a statistical table reflecting prosperity. An economic survey of the year 1955, a typical year of the 1950`s, may be typical as illustrating the decade. The national output was valued at about 10 percent above that of 1954 (1955 output was estimated at 392 billion dollars). The production of manufacturers was about 40 percent more than it had averaged in the years immediately following World War Ⅱ.The country`s business spent about 30 billion dollars for new factories and machinery. National income available for spending was almost a third greater than it had been in 1950. Consumers spent about 256 billion dollars; that is, about 700 million dollars a day, or about twenty-five million dollars every hour, all around the clock. Sixty-five million people held jobs and only a little more than two million wanted jobs but could not find them. Only agriculture complained that it was not sharing in the boom. To some observers this was an ominous echo of the mid-1920`s. As farmers` share of their products declined, marketing costs rose. But there were few pessimists among the observers of the national economy. Those few seemed to fear that the prosperity was based on government pump-priming on a stupendous scale. The passage is mainly concerned with which of the following aspects of the United States history? ［A］ The agricultural trends of the 1950`s［B］ The unemployment rate in 1955［C］ The general economic situation in the 1950`s［D］ the federal budget of 1952 Passage 3 During the American War of Independence, women were involved in the active fighting in three ways. First, as members of a distinct branch of the Continental Army, referred to as “Women of the Army”, women water carriers, who had plenty of opportunity to observe the firing of cannons, could replace a wounded comrade. The second way that women were involved in active fighting was as regular troop members who wore men`s uniforms and fought side by side with their male counterparts. Theoretically, women were not supposed to be recruited into the Continental Army, but if a woman was a good soldier, no one made an issue of sex at a time when the army was so short of soldiers that boys not yet in their teens were also being recruited in violation of rules. Third, women were occasional fighters affiliated with local militia companies or committees of safety firmed to protect the local community. What is the main idea expressed in the passage? ［A］ Women played an important role in military hospitals during the Revolutionary War. ［B］ The Continental Army was successful in teaching women to fire cannons. ［C］ The services of women on committees of safety were crucial in winning the war. ［D］ Woman were active in combat during the Revolutionary War. Passage 4 In the long run a government will always encroach upon freedom to the extent to which it has the power to do so; this is almost a natural law of politics, since whatever the intentions of the men who exercise political power, the sheer momentum of government leads to a constant pressure upon the liberties of the citizen. But in many countries society has responded by throwing up its own defenses in the shape of social classes or organized corporations which, enjoying economic power and popular support, have been able to set limits to the scope of action of the executive. Such, for example, in England was the origin of all our liberties-won from government by the stand first of the feudal nobility, then of churches and politics parties, and lately of trade unions, commercial organizations, and the societies for promoting various causes. Even in European lands which were arbitrarily ruled, the powers of the monarchy, though absolute in theory, were in their exercise checked in a similar fashion. Indeed the fascist dictatorships of today are truly tyrannical governments which fashion. Indeed the fascist dictatorships of today are truly tyrannical governments which western Europe has known for centuries, and they have been rendered possible only because on coming to power they destroyed all forms of social organization which were in any way rivals to the state. The main idea of this paragraph is best expressed as . ［A］ limited powers of monarchies［B］ the ideal of liberal government ［C］ functions of trade unions［D］ safeguards of individual liberty Passage 5 American Indians played a central role in the war known as the American Revolution. To them, however, the dispute between the colonists and England was peripheral. For American Indians the conflict was a war for American Indian independence, and whichever side they choose they lost it. Mary Brant was a powerful influence among the Iroquois. She was a Mohawk, the leader of the society of all Iroquois matrons, and the widow of Sir William Johnson, Superintendent of Indian Affairs. Her brother, Joseph Brant, is the best-known American Indian warrior of the Revolution, yet she may have exerted even more influence in the confederacy than he did. She used her influence to keep the western tribes of Iroquois loyal to the English King, George Ⅲ. When the colonists won the war, she and her tribe had to abandon their lands and retreat to Canada. On the other side, Nancy Ward held positions of authority in the Cherekee nation. she had fought as a warrior in the war against the Creeks and as a reward for her heroism was made “Beloved Woman” of the tribe. This office made her chief of chiefs. She was friendly with the White settlers and supported the Patriots during the Revolution. Yet the Cherekees too lost their land. What is the main point the author makes in the passage? ［A］ Siding with English in the Revolution helped American Indians regain their land ［B］ At the time of the revolution, the Superintendent of Indian Affairs had little power ［C］ Regardless of whom they supported in the Revolution, American Indians lost their land ［D］ The outcome of the Revolution was largely determined by American Indian women Passage 6 Forces other than damaging winds are also at work inside tornadoes. Sometimes, as the twisting funnel passes over a house, the walls and ceiling burst apart as if a bomb had gone off inside. This explosion is caused by the low air pressure at the center of a tornado. The pressure at the center of a tornado is usually 13 pounds per square inch. However, inside the house the air pressure is normal, about 15 pounds per square inch. The difference of 2 pounds per square inch between the inside and outside pressure may not seem like much. But suppose a tornado funnel passes over a small building that measures 20 by 10 feet. On each square inch of the building, there is 2 pounds of pressure from the inside that is not balance by air pressure outside the building. on the ceiling, that added up to an unbalanced pressure of 57000 pounds. The pressure on the four walls adds up to 172800 pounds. If windows are open in the building, some of the inside air rush out through them. This will balance the pressure inside and outside the building. But if the windows are shut tightly, the enormous inside pressure may cause the building to burst. Unfortunately, heavy rain and hail often occur in thunderstorms that later produce tornadoes. so people frequently shut all windows to protect their property. This may cause far worse damage later. For the same reason, tornado cellars must have an air vent, otherwise, the cellar door might be blown out when a tornado passes over it. Which of the following is the main topic of the passage? ［A］ How tornadoes can be prevented［B］ When tornadoes usually occur ［C］ Where tornadoes are formed［D］ Why tornadoes cause so much damage Passage 7 Resources can be said to be scarce in both an absolute and in a relative sense; the surface of the Earth is finite, imposing absolute scarcity; but the scarcity that concerns economists is the relative scarcity in different uses. Materials used for one purpose cannot at the same time be used for other purposes; if the quantity of an input is limited, the increased use of it in one manufacturing process must cause it to become less available for other uses. The cost of a product in terms of money may not measure its true cost to society. The true cost of, say, the construction of a supersonic jet is the value of the schools and refrigerators that will never be built as a result. Every act of production uses up some of society`s available resources; it means the fore going of an opportunity to produce something else. In deciding how to use resources most effectively to satisfy the wants of the community, this opportunity cost must ultimately be taken into account. In a market economy the price of a good and the quantity supplied depends on the cost of making it, and that cost, ultimately, is the cost of not making other goods. The market mechanism enforces this relationship. The cost of, say, a pair of shoes is the price of the leather, the labor, the fuel, and other elements used up in producing them. But the price of these inputs, in turn, depends on what they can produce elsewhere-if the leather can be used to produce handbags that are valued highly by consumers, the price of leather will be bid up correspondingly. What does this passage mainly discuss? ［A］ The scarcity of manufactured goods［B］ The value of scarce materials ［C］ The manufacturing of scarce goods［D］ The cost of producing shoes Passage 8 (1990年试题) In May 1989, space shuttle “Atlantis” released in outer space the space probe “Megallan”, which is now on her 15-month and one-billion-kilometer flight to Venus. A new phase in space exploration has begun. The planet Venus is only slightly smaller than Earth; it is the only other object in the solar system, in fact, that even comes close to the Earth`s size. Venus has a similar density, so it is probably made of approximately the same stuff, and it has an atmosphere, complete with clouds. It is also the closest planet to earth, and thus the most similar in distance from the sun. In short, Venus seems to justify its long-held nickname of “earth`s twin.” The surface temperature of Venus reaches some 900F. Added to that is an atmospheric pressure about 90 times Earth`s. High overhead in the carbon dioxide (CO2) that passer for air is a layer of clouds, perhaps 10 to 20 miles thick, whose little drops consist mostly of sulfuric acid (H2SO4). water is all but nonexistent. Born with so many fundamental similarities to Earth, how did Venus get to be so radically different: It is not just an academic matter. For all its extremes, Venus is a valuable laboratory for researchers studying the weather and climate of Earth. It has no Earth`s oceans, so the heat-transport and other mechanisms are greatly simplified. In addition, the planet Venus takes 243 earthdays to turn once on its axis, so incoming heat from the sun is added and distributed at a more leisurely, observable pace. The main idea of this passage is about . ［A］ problems of space travel［B］ scientific methods in space exploration ［C］ the importance of Venus to Earth［D］ conditions on Venus Passage 9 Taste is such a subjective matter that we don`t usually conduct preference tests for food. The most you can say about anyone`s preference, is that it`s one person`s opinion. But because the two big cola companies-coca-cola and Pepsi cola-are marketed so aggressively, we`ve wondered how big a role taste preference actually plays in brand loyalty. we set up a taste test that challenged people who identified themselves as either Coca-Cola or Pepsi fans: Find your brand in a blind tasting. We invited staff volunteers who has a strong liking for either Coca-Cola Classic or Pepsi, Diet (低糖的) coke, or Diet Pepsi. These were people who thought they`d have no trouble telling their brand from the other brand. We eventually located 19 regular cola drinkers and 27 diet cola drinkers. Then we fed them four unidentified samples of cola one at a time, regular colas for the one group, diet versions for the other. we asked them to tell us whether each sample was Coke or Pepsi; then we analyzed the records statistically to compare the participants` choices with what mere guess-work could have accomplished. Getting all four samples right was a tough test, but not too tough, we thought, for people who believed they could recognize their brand. In the end, only 7 out of 19 regular cola drinkers correctly identified their brand of choice in all four trials. The diet-cola drinkers did a little worse-only 7 of 27 identified all four samples correctly. While both groups did better than chance would predict, nearly half the participants in each group made the wrong choice two or more times. Two people got all four samples wrong. Overall, half the participants did about as well on the last round of tasting as on the first, so fatigue, or taste burnout, was not a factor. our preference test results suggest that only a few Pepsi participants and coke fans may reality be able to tell their favorite brand by taste and price. The author`s purpose in writing this passage is to . ［A］ show that taste preference is highly subjective ［B］ argue that taste testing is an important marketing strategy ［C］ emphasize that taste and price are closely related to each other ［D］ recommend that blind tasting be introduced in the quality control of cola Passage 10 Procrastinators are people who have a chronic habit of putting things off, usually until the last minute and sometimes until it is too late altogether. The most common reason that procrastinators themselves give for their habit, which they are usually quite willing to talk about even if not willing to change, is that they are lazy. Other typical excuses are that they are undisciplined, brilliant but disorganized, or very poor at organizing their time. Some procrastinators, however, almost against their very nature, actually get as far as trying to do something about their problem and seek help. Recent research with such people seems to suggest that their difficulties are much more complex than the procrastinators themselves think. The general conclusions are that such people have a vulnerable sense of self-worth, are particularly fearful of failure, and deliberately put things off precisely so that they never leave themselves time to produce their best work. The reason for their delaying tactics is that, since they do everything at the last moment and under pressure, the procrastinators can retain their illusion of brilliance without ever having to put it to the test. 1. The main idea in the first paragraph is . ［A］ the nature of procrastination ［B］ the undisciplined character of procrastinators ［C］ that disorganization is the procrastinator`s main problem ［D］ the reasons procrastinators give for their behavior 2. The main idea in the second paragraph is . ［A］ how procrastinators have an illusion of brilliance ［B］ how procrastinators seek help ［C］ research findings regarding procrastinators ［D］ that procrastinators always leave everything until the last moment 3. A suitable title for this passage might be . ［A］ The Chronic Habit of Procrastination ［B］ Procrastination: Exercises and Reality ［C］ Disorganization, the True Cause of Procrastination ［D］ Procrastination: Never Do Today What You Can Put Off Until Tomorrow 4. Of all the following ideas that appear in the passage, which do you think the author attributes most importance to? ［A］ Some procrastinators seek help for their problem ［B］ Procrastinators, in general, put off things deliberately so as to avoid a real test ［C］ Procrastinators usually think that they are very bad at organizing their time ［D］ Procrastinators sometimes put off things until it is too late Passage 11 What does a scientist do when he or she “explains” something? Scientific explanation comes in two forms; generalization and reduction. Most psychologists deal with generalization. They explain particular instances of behavior as examples of general laws. For instance most psychologists would explain a pathologically strong fear of dogs as an example of classical conditioning. presumably, the person was frightened earlier in life by a dog. An unpleasant stimulus was paired with the sight of the animal(perhaps the person was knocked down by a dog) and the subsequent sight of dogs evokes the earlier response-fear. Most physiologists deal with reduction. Phenomena are explained in terms of simpler phenomena. For example, the movement of a muscle is explained in terms of changes in the membrane of muscle cells, entry of particular chemicals, and interactions between protein molecules within these terms of forces that bind various molecules together and cause various parts of these molecules to be attracted to one another. The task of physiological psychology is to “explain” behavior in physiological terms. Like other scientists, physiological psychologists believe that all natural phenomena-including human behavior-are subject to the laws of physics. Thus, the laws of behavior can be reduced to descriptions of physiological processes. How does one study the physiology of behavior? Physiological psychologists simply be reductionists. It is not enough to observe behaviors and correlate them with physiological events that occur at the same time. Identical behaviors, Under different conditions, may occur for different reasons, and thus be initiated by different physiological mechanisms: This means that we must understand “psychologically” why a particular behavior occurs before we can understand what physiological events made it occur. What does the passage mainly discuss? ［A］ The difference between “scientific” and “unscientific” explanations ［B］ The difference between human and animal behavior ［C］ How fear would be explained by the psychologist, physiologist, and molecular biologist ［D］ How scientists differ in their approaches to explaining natural phenomena Passage 12 A wise man once said that the only thing necessary for the triumph of evil is for good men to do nothing. So, as police officer, I have some urgent things to say to good people. Day after day my men and I struggle to hold back a tidal wave of crime. Something has gone terribly wrong with our once-proud America way of life. It has happened in the area of values. A key ingredient is disappearing, and I think I know what it is: accountability. Accountability isn`t hard to define. it means that every person is responsible for his or her actions and liable for their consequences. Of the many values that hold civilization together-honesty, Kindness, and so on accountability may be the most important of all. Without it, there can be no respect, no trust, no law-and, ultimately, no society. My job as a police officer is to impose accountability on people who refuse, or have never learned, to impose it on themselves. But as every policeman knows, external controls on people`s behavior are far less effective than internal restraints such as guilt, shame and embarrassment. Fortunately there are still communities-smaller towns, usually-where schools maintain discipline and where parents hold up standards that proclaim: “In this family certain things are not tolerated-they simply are not done!” Yet more and more, especially in our larger cities and suburbs, these inner restraints are loosening. Your typical robber has none. He considers your property his property; he takes what he wants, including your life if you enrage him. The main cause of this break-down is a radical shift in attitudes. Thirty years ago, if a crime was committed, society was considered the victim. Now, in a shocking reversal, it`s the criminal who is consider victimized: by his underprivileged upbringing, by the school that didn`t teach him to read, by the church that failed to reach him with moral guidance, by the parents who didn`t provide a stable home. I didn`t believe it. Many others in equally disadvantaged circumstances choose not to engage in criminal activities. If we free the criminal, even partly, from accountability, we become a society of endless excuses where no one accepts responsibility for anything. We in America desperately need more people who believe that the person who commits a crime is the one responsible for it. The key point of the passage is that . ［A］ Stricter discipline should be maintained in schools and families ［B］ more good examples should be set for people to follow ［C］ more restrictions should be imposed on people`s behavior ［D］ more people should accept the value of accountability 第六节 专项阅读练习答案与解题思路 Passage 1 答案为C项。 文章提到，在19世纪70年代以前，美国还谈不上有受过训练的护士。然后又交待美国上层阶级的妇女发动改革运动，有些医生不赞成妇女建立护士训练学校，“But the women reformers did not depend on the physicians` approval …”文章的结尾进行总结说“professional nursing … emerged neither from medical discoveries nor from a program of hospital reform initiated by physicians; outsiders saw the need first.”就是说建立护士训练学校是因为有此需要，因而美国上层阶级的妇女率先兴起、投入这项改革运动。对文章的细节进行归纳后就不难看出哪一个选择项是本文最佳标题。A项的内容是美国的公共卫生，这在文章里根本未涉及到；B项的Florence Nightingale是在叙述有些女改革家越过医生去找她们本阶层那些更有权势的男子时所举的一个例子，说她在英国 政府中有些身居高位的朋友，她在改革她的国家军队医院时，就是采用这种方法。例举Florence Nightingale是为了加强主题思想的说服力，它只是一个小小的细节，根本不能做标题；C项是关于为建立护士训练学校而进行的不懈努力，正好与文章的内容相吻合；D项谈论的是上、下层阶级的卫生保健，文章中也没谈及，因此，很容易排除。Passage 2 答案为C项。文章开始就叙述“1952年以后的美国经济是一种丰衣足食和几乎充分就业的经济”，接着是在各个领域中谈及繁荣的景象，比如：全国产量、制造业等。总之涉及的全是经济问题，贯穿文章始终。A项是关于50年代美国农业的趋势，文章在例举经济在各方面呈现繁荣景象时，顺便提一句：“Only agriculture complained that it was not sharing in the boom”，关于农业发展的趋势并不是作者要阐述的主题。B项是关于1955年的失业率，作者在说明1955年全国产量的增长、制造业生产的增长以及消费者消费增长的同时，为了强调这一时期的繁荣景象，用6500万人有工作，而只有200来万人想就业但却找不到工作来衬托，并不在于说明其失业率有多少。D项文章中根本未加涉及。只有C项，说明20世纪50年代美国总的经济情况，概括文章的主题所涉及的几个方面。 Passage 3 答案为D项。文章第一句开门见山地指出“妇女在美国独立战争中直接参加了战争，体现在三个方面”，点明了本文的主题，概括了中心思想，因此是主题句。段中的其他各句都服务于主题句所表述的主题，第一个方面体现在“women staffed field hospitals and acted as military support …”；第二个方面体现在“…as regular troop members”；最后是结尾句“…women were occasional fighters affiliated with local militia companies or committees of safety formed to protect the local community.”妇女以上述三种方式积极参与。选择项A只是三种方式中的一种；选择项B与文中所述内容不符；选择项C又夸大了妇女在战争中的作用。只有选项D全面地概括了本文主旨。 Passage 4 答案为D项。本题询问文章的中心思想。本文的中心思想在段中(段中主题句)。尽管文章以“… a government will always encroach upon freedom…”开始，但是紧接着连词“but”引出了主题，上下句形成一个转折的逻辑关系。整个主题围绕着“in many countries society has responded by throwing up its defenses in the shape of social classes…”，接着还例举了英国的实例来说明在许多国家里，社会所采取的对策，以社会各阶层或以组织机构的形式建立自己的防护手段，因为这些阶层和机构享有经济实力雄厚的大众的支持。文章最后总结说“Even in European lands which were arbitrarily ruled, the powers of the monarchy, though absolutely in theory, were in their exercise checked in a similar fashion”。综观全文，选择D项最能概括全文的主题。 Passage 5 答案为C项。本文开头便交待美国印第安人在那场被称为“美国大革命”的战争中发挥了重要作用，这一句可以看做是个引子，真正的主题句是下边内容，用一个转折词“however”引出“对美国印第安人来说，殖民地居民和英国之间的争执是与己无关的局外事”，以及“For American Indians the conflict was a war for American Indian independence, and whichever side they chose they lost it.”然后为了解释这一主题思想，作者引用Iroquois族妇女领袖Mary Brant和拥有“Beloved Woman”称号的“Cherekee”族女英雄Nancy Ward的例子来说明 “美国印第安人在这场战争中无论站在哪一边，他们都失去了独立”这一主题。因此C项为正确答案。A项内容恰好与主题表述内容相反； B项内容与原文也不符；D项夸大了妇女的作用，文中只是例举二位印第安人女英雄，并没说明美国独立战争的胜利主要靠美国印第安妇女。Passage 6 答案为D项。本篇文章主要阐述龙卷风起破坏作用的原因——其内部的力，主要是由于“the low air pressure at the center of a tornado”。接下来的几段都是围绕这一主题展开的，先后详细地讲述了龙卷风中心的气压和屋内的气压，从屋内与屋外之间每平方英寸的压力差来分析龙卷风造成的损失。选择项D所阐述的内容是“怎样预防龙卷风”，虽然文中也渗透了一些关于如何使屋内外气压达到平衡以避免巨大的内压使建筑物发生爆炸，但这只是作者为了说明主题时所提到的一种方法，不能作为本 文的标题；选择项B的内容(什么时候经常刮龙卷风)文中根本未涉及；选择项C(龙卷风在何处形成的)排除，原因与B项相同；只有 选择项D(龙卷风为什么会带来这么大的损失)符合题意。Passage 7 答案为B项。本文一开始就交待了主题“Resources can be said to be scarce in both an absolute and a relative sense …if the quantity of an input is limited, the increased use of it in one manufacturing process must cause it to become less available for other uses.”(用于一种目的的材料不能同时用于其他目的；如果投入量有限，那么在某个加工过程中增加它的使用量就一定会使其他用途更难获得材料)。第二段用举例的方式说明“The cost of a product in terms of money may not measure its true cost to society”； 原因是“每种生产活动都会耗尽社会可以获得的某些资源；它意味着放弃一个生产某种其他产品的机会”。第三段作者叙述在市场经济中， 一种商品的价格和供给量取决于它的生产成本，“and that cost, ultimately, is the cost of not making other goods”。因此说， 整篇文章都是围绕商品的价格特别是比较缺乏的资源或材料的价格是由什么来决定的。选择项B概括了这个主题。Passage 8 答案为C项。短文第一段叙述人类对宇宙空间正进行探索；第二、三段对金星(The planet Venus)与地球(Earth)的许多相似与不同之处进行比较；在第四段中点出主题：“Venus is a valuable Laboratory for researchers studying the weather and climate of earth”，说明研究金星与地球异同的目的是为了更好地研究地球。故而正确答案选择C。 Passage 9 答案为A项。本主旨题为目的型，全文的主题句在首段首句“Taste is such a subjective matter that we don`t usually conduct preference tests for food. ”第二句作者又进一步解释这一主题，指出“The most you can say about anyone`s preference, is that it`s one person`s opinion”。作者为证实“个人的口味爱好全凭主观兴致”，做了一项实验，其结果表明“only a few Pepsi participants and coke fans may really be able to tell there favorite brand by taste and price.”。在四个选项中，A项恰好表达了作者撰写本文之目的。 Passage 10 1.答案为D项。本题询问的是第一段的中心思想，略读完本篇，我们知道作者在第一段里首先给“Procrastinator”下个定义，指出他们是一种“people who have a chronic habit of putting things off, usually until the last minute and sometimes until it is too late altogether”。在下完定义之后，作者接着指出这些办事拖拉的人承认他们办事拖拉最主要的原因就是懒惰，此外还有组织纪律差、不善于安排自己的时间等原因。因此，我们可以看出，第一段除向我们介绍“procrastinator”之外，只提到他们拖拉的原因。所以，选择项D最能表达第一段的主题。 2.答案为C项。文中第二段首先用一个引子，然后引出主题，说明最近的实验表明procrastinators的困难比他们自己想象的要复杂，其结论是“…such people have a vulnerable sense of self-worth, are particularly fearful of failure, and deliberately put things off precisely so that…”,拖拉的原因是“since they do everything at the last moment…, the procrastinators can retain their illusion of brilliance without ever having to put it to the test”。整个段落主要是讲最近对办事拖拉的人的研究结果。 3.答案为B项。通过上述两题对本文一、二段的分析，我们知道这篇文章主要说明办事拖拉的人给自己的行为找借口，而实验研究却表明他们拖拉的习性并不像他们自己认为的那么简单，事实上是这些人由于太害怕失败了，而故意耽搁时间，这样他们就不会有足够的时间把事情做好，为自己没能出色地完成任务寻找借口(时间紧、压力大)。因此，选择项B概括了文章的主题，它暗示文章是关于办事拖拉(耽搁)的借口与真实性。 4答案为B项。文章第一段是关于procrastinators为自己行为找到的借口。第二段才是作者要指出的问题的实质性，用一个转折词“however”来引出真实的缘由，作者用实验的结果来驳斥procrastinators的自我分析，从中强调procrastinators办事拖拉的真实原因并不像他们自己所认为的那样，而是故意耽误事情，这样可以避免对他们的考验，因为这些人自我价值观念很差，可又特别害怕失败受挫，于是就只好故意拖拉。 Passage 11 答案为D项。本文主要阐述心理学家、生理学家、以及生理心理学家用各种不同方法来解释各种自然现象。短文首先提出“What does scientist do when he or she `explain` something?”第二句又给出答案“Seintific explanation comes in two forms: generaliation and reduction”，然后主要叙述了心理学家采用概括法；第二段讲述生理学家主要采用归纳法；第三、四段说明生理心理学家又不是绝对的采用归纳法。纵观全文，我们可以判断出D项概括主题。 选择项A的内容是说明科学解释与非科学解释的区别，文章中根本未加涉及。选择项B是关于人与动物行为的区别，与文章内容也不相符。选择项C的内容是解释恐惧感的，这也与全文内容不相符，因为文中只有谈到心理学家时说他们认为有些人一看见狗就产生恐惧感，根本未提生理学家和分子生物学家是否如此。 Passage 12 答案为D项。本文的中心思想表述在第三段及最后一段，属于段中——段尾主题句。在第三段，作者认为“Accountability isn`t hard to define. It means that every person is responsible for his or her actions and liable for their consequences.”(“accountability”是说每个人都应为他或她所做的事及其后果承担责任和义务)。文章尾段作者再次点题，指出“we in America desperately need more people who believe that the person who commits a crime is the one responsible for it”。四个选项中，只有D项(应该有更多的人接受“accountability”这种价值观)表述了这种思想。。